Psycholinguistik : An Introductory Note

Psycholinguistics : An Introductory Note

nengahsudipa@unud.ac.id

I.                   DEFINITION

Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, 1985 by Jack C. Richards, John T. Platt and Heidi Weber defines the Psycholinguistics as the study of (a) mental process that a person uses in producing and understanding language, and (b) how humans learn language. Psycholinguistics  includes the study of SPEECH PERCEPTION, the role of MEMORY, CONCEPTS and other processes in language use, and how social and psychological affect  the use of language (p.234). According to Hartly (1982:16) in his book entitled Linguistics for Language Learners, Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind in processing and producing utterance and in a language acquisition. Osgood and Sebeok (1965) in their book of psycholinguistics : A Survey of Theory and Research Problems, defines Psycholinguistics  deals directly with the process of encoding and decoding as they relate states of message to states communicators. Langacker (1973:6) in his book entitled Language and Its Structure states that Psycholinguistics  is the study of language acquisition and language behaviour, as well as the psychological mechanism responsible for them. Slama (1973:39) in his book entitled Introduction to Psycholinguistics states that Psycholinguistics  is concerned in the broadest sense with relations between messages and the characteristics of the human individuals who select and interprete them. Paul Fraisse wrote the introduction to Problems de Psycholinguistique,  quoted by Slama (1973:39) stated that Psycholinguistics is the study of relations between our needs for expression and communcation and the means offered to us by a language learned in one’s childhood and later. Aitchison (1998:1) in her book The Articulate Mammal : An Introduction to Psycholinguistics defines Psycholinguistics  studies about language and mind. Harley (2001:1) in his book Prologomena to a Theory of Word Formation defines as a study mental process in using language, while Clak and Clark (1977:4) in their book entitled Psychology and Language : An Introduction to Psycholinguistics states that the psychology of language is related to three main things, namely comprehension, production and acquisition.  Thus, psycholinguistics studies the mental processess undergone by humans in using language (Dardjowidjojo, 2003:7)

 II. COVERAGE

From the previous definition, the Psycholinguistics mainly covers three major aspects :

2.1 Language Comprehension

This sub-part can be discussed into two main branches : (a) language perception and (b) language comprehending. In this section, since the concept of these two are not significanly different, the following descriptions are intended to show them briefly. Clark and Clark (1977) divided this concept into two (1) comprehension related to understading the utterances we hear (ßperception), and (2) comprehension in relation  to the act-needs to be taken after the comprehension happened (ßcomprehending). The former can be defined as the mental process where the hearer perceives the sound produced by a speaker using such sounds to form an interpretation about what the speaker means. It is simply to say that comprehension constitutes the form of meaning from the sounds. The latter is after the hearer comprehends the utterenaces, is there any actions to be conducted in line with such comprehension, this is called Utilization of sentences (Dardjowidjojo, 2003:59).

2.2 Language Production

Mayer (2000:49), quoted by Dardjowidjojo, (2003:141) states that the utterance is processed through three stages : (a) conceptualize, (b) formulaize, (c) articulize.  Conceptualize  means that the speaker plans the conceptual structure to be uttered, this is also called the message stage. Formulize which is also named grammatical encoding means stages where the appropriate items are retrived from the mental lexicons and then be categorized syntactically (N,V,Adj, NP, VP, Adv, etc.). The last stage ‘articulize’ is also called phonological encoding contains the framework and content which are already ready to pronounce in terms of sound.

Problems encountered during the language productions among others : (a) pauses, e.g. Eh who is... came here yesterday?. Oh, Ali came here yesterday. In Bahasa Indonesia you may hear ,  si Anu...., etc, oh anu...nya...(b) errors which can be subdivided into two (i) slip of the tongue, e.g.  you came here last Monday? Oh Tuesday. In  Bahasa Indonesia you may hear.. ambil itu kepala... oh kelapa (ii) aphasia, is a kind of speech desease, a person is not able to speak properly due to be brain damage or other deviciencies in the language memory.

2.3 Language Acquisition

            John Lyons in his book entitled Language and Linguistics (1981:252) stated that psychologist and linguist prefer to use the term acquisition rather than learning. The reason is simply that acquisition  is neutral with respect to some of the implications that have come to be associated with the term learning  in psychology.   

2.3.1 Theories

            Psycholinguistically, the language acquisition theories are of three :

(a)    Behavioristcis

FB Skinner, one of the behavioristic followers stated that the child comes into the world with a tabularasa, a clean slate bearing no preconceived notion about the world or about language, and this child is then shaped by his environment slowly conditioned through various schedules of reinforcement (Brown, et.al.1980:18). The model S  (Stimulus) and R (Respond) is introduced to support this idea.

(b)   Metalistics

Halliday (1964:178) in his book The Linguistics Sciences and Language Teaching said ‘we know that all normal human infants are born with the potentiality of acquiring language’, and futher Wilkins (1972:168) in his book Linguistics in Language Teaching said that everybody learns a language not because they are subjected to a similar conditioning process, but because they possess an inborn capacity which permits them to acquire a language as a normal maturational process. Brown (1980:21) claimed that every baby-born brings what is called Language Acquisition Devices (LAD) consisteng of : (i) Devices to differentiate the distinctive sounds; (ii) Devices to organize linguistic units to be classed and be developed later; (iii) Devices toward the language system which is possible or impossible; (iv) Devices to use language system based upon the development of linguistic system, in order to create the impossible system outside of found linguistic data.

(c)    Cognitive

In 1960s, the mentalistic linguistcs proposed a new approach called ‘Cognitive Approaches’. This approach combines the previous theories, the baby is borned with language capacity and influenced by the environment. The important point to be considered through this approach is that, the success of a child to use, to understand and to acquire a language is due to the maturity of his cognitive. The cognitive theories assumed that there is a principle based upon the linguistic organization used by a child to interprete and operate the linguistic environment. All of this is a mental process, although it is not easy to observe, it is clearly having the physical basis. This is the difference from the behaviouristic idea.

2.3.2 Language Acquisition and Language Learning

The main difference between the Language Acquisition (LA) Language Learning (LL)

LA is considered as a sub-conscious effort (remember not unconscious) meaning that  any language substances can be picked up  any times,  from  any sources  and anywhere. It is free and in natural manner, so it seems very automatic. LL is assumed as a conscious activity, therefore  in obtaining any language system, it  must be controlled by syllabus or schedulled by lesson plan. This process must be done in artificial ways and nurtured teaching method. It can be schematized as follows :

III. CONCLUSION

            Psycholinguistics  covers three main aspects namely : (a) Language Comprehension, (b) Language Production and, (c) Language Acquisition. It is advisable to reconsider adding one more significant aspect. i.e. Biological and Neurological basis causing the human beeings manage to speak language compared to other spicies.

REFERENCES

Aitchison, Jean. 1998. The Articulate Mamal : An Introduction to Psycholinguistcs. London : Routledge

Brown, Doughlas H. 1980. Principles of Language Learnng and Teaching . New Jersey.Hall

Clark, Herbert H. And Eve V. Clark. 1977. Psychology and Language : An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. New York : Harcout Brace and Jovanovich, Inc.

Dardjowidjojo, Soenjono. 2003. Psikolinguistik : Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta : Yayasan Obor Indonesia

Halliday, MAK. August McIntosh and Peter Strevens. 1964. The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. London : Longman

Harley, Trevor A. 1995/2001. The Psychology of Language : From Data to Theory. Sussex : Erlbaum Taylor&Francis

Hartly, Anthony F. 1982. Linguistics for Language Learners. London : The Macmillan Press.Ltd

Langacker, Roland W. 1983. Language and Its Structure. New York : Harcout Brace Jovanovich. Inc.

Lyons, John. 1981. Language and Linguistics. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press

Osgood, Charles E. And Thomas Sebeok (eds) .1985. Psycholinguistics : A Survey of Theory and Research Problems.  Bloomington : Indiana University Press.

Richards, Jack. John T. Platt and Heidi Weber. 1985. Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics. London : Longman

Slama, Cazacu Tatiana. 1973. Introduction o Psycholinguistics. The Hague-Paris : Mouton.

Wilkins, DA. 1972. Linguistics in Language Teaching. London: Edward Arnold Ltd.